In the Indian context, Philosophy, also known as “Darshana,” refers to the vision or insight into reality. Indian Philosophy consists of two main branches: the orthodox and the unorthodox. The orthodox philosophies are named as such because they adhere to the authority of the Vedas, while the unorthodox branch, which includes Buddhism, Jainism, Charvaka, and others, does not recognize the authority of the Vedas.
Hinduism recognizes six Pramāṇas as reliable means to attain accurate knowledge and truths: Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison and analogy), Arthapatti (postulation, derived from circumstances), Anupalabdhi (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof), and Shabda (word, testimony from reliable past or present experts).
The term Mimansa, derived from the idea of thorough investigation, refers to a philosophy aimed at rationally justifying the practice of rituals. The principle of Apoorva plays a crucial role in assuring the fruits of these rituals and emphasizes the ultimate goal of attaining a heavenly state that transcends earthly life. The school of Mimansa holds the Vedas as the highest authority, even diminishing the importance of God to a secondary position. Referred to as Poorva Mimansa, this philosophy focuses on the earlier parts of the Vedas and emphasizes the importance of living a life based on rituals justified by the Vedas, as they have the potential to lead individuals to their highest goal.
In the Vedantic Philosophy, different teachers developed distinct schools of thought rather than a specific founder. The major schools include Advaita, Visishtadvaita, and Dvaita. Adi Shankaracharya advocated the Advaita system, Ramanujacharya developed the Visishtadvaita system, and Madhavacharya established the Dvaita system. It is noteworthy that all three teachers accepted the authority of the Vedas, but their interpretations of the Brahma Sutra differed. Nyaya Darshan is concerned with rules of logic. The term Nyāya literally means “rules”, “method” or “judgment”. The most significant contributions of this school to Indian philosophy include the systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. Nyaya school’s epistemology accepts four Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, the testimony of past or present reliable experts). According to Nyaya, human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge, and Moksha is gained through the right knowledge. This premise led Nyaya to focus on epistemology, which is the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. For the Naiyyayikas, false knowledge is not merely ignorance; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming delusions and understanding the true nature of soul, self, and reality. Naiyyayika scholars approached philosophy as a form of direct realism, believing that anything that really exists is in principle humanly knowable. To them, correct knowledge and understanding differs from simple, reflexive cognition; it requires Anuvyavasaya, which is the cross-examination of cognition and reflective cognition of what one thinks one knows.The Vaiseshika philosophy follows the Nyaya system very closely, the two are often considered as twin philosophies. This system recognizes the 7 Padarthas or categories which are substance, quality, action, generality, particularity, the relation of inference, and nonexistence. Vaiseshika system is known for its atomic theory of evolution and its handling of particulars. Vaiseshika goal of life is to become free from Karma by renouncing worldly desires and attain liberation by true knowledge.
The term “Sankhya” refers to the correct understanding of numbers or categories. Sankhya encompasses 25 categories or fundamental principles. It is characterized by uncompromising dualism, atheistic realism, and spiritual pluralism. The two metaphysical principles of Sankhya are Purusha, representing pure consciousness, and Prakriti, representing the principle of matter. Both principles are eternal and exist independently of each other. According to Sankhya, the entire universe originates from primordial matter, Prakriti. Sankhya asserts that the universe is created as a result of the union of Purusha and Prakriti. Prakriti consists of three Gunas – Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas. Since Prakriti is the material cause of all beings, everything is composed of Prakriti, and thus, governed by these three Gunas. Sankhya recognizes only three valid means of acquiring knowledge, known as Pramanas – Pratyaksha (direct perception), Anumana (inference), and Shabda (verbal testimony). The central goal of human life, according to Sankhya, is Kaivalya or Liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. This liberation results in freedom from all the miseries and sufferings of human life. Pain or suffering is attributed to three sources: 1. Adhyatmic (from one’s own body and mind), 2. Adhibhautic (from the external world), and 3. Adhidaivik (from the supernatural world). The remedy for all sufferings and pains, according to Sankhya philosophy, lies in right knowledge, which distinguishes our real self (Purusha) from our unreal self (Prakriti). The practices of Yoga encapsulate the essence of Sankhya philosophy and are considered its practical manifestation.
Yoga Darshana, as conveyed through the Yoga Sutras by Maharishi Patanjali, is regarded as the fundamental text of Yoga. The Sutras elaborate on the Ashtanga system of 8 limbs and are divided into 4 chapters or Padas as follows: Samadhi Pada: 51 Sutras, Sadhana Pada: 55 Sutras, Vibhuti Pada: 55 Sutras, Kaivalya Pada: 34 Sutras
In the Indian philosophy department, Dr. Naval Kishor Chaudhary, a highly qualified and experienced teacher in Nyaya darshan, spearheads the Darshan department.